According to the Entertainment Software Association (2007), the typical game player is 33 years old and has been playing games for more than 10 years; 38% of these games players are women. But, this is not to say that younger individuals are not playing games. They are, and as Lenhart, Madden, and Hitlin (2005) report, the majority of teenagers are now using the Internet; further, 81% of these teens (or approximately 17 million individuals) play games online (p. 35). More importantly, though, the exposure to certain technologies, like video games, may have altered the minds of these students, or "digital natives," in such a way that educational theories that worked in the past may not in today's world (Prensky, 2001).

It is important to emphasize that these technologically savvy students are not searching for an easier path; on the contrary, as Steinkuehler (2005) suggests, these individuals are seeking out cognitive challenges via video games. Gee (2003) continues this line of thought, and argues that in the world of video games, "hard is not bad and easy is not good" (p. 165). Therefore, some educators, like Barab and his colleagues (2005), propose a different type of educational model. This alternative is one that blends together games and learning, while adding one ingredient that is typically absent in education - fun. Despite evidence to suggest that there are benefits to the interactions that take place within these rich, complex worlds, the fact is that the educational community has been slow to adopt the use of new technologies in the classroom (Hitlin & Rainie, 2005).

The articles that are summarized in this bibliography examine a wide variety of topics including immersion, creation (versus memorization), and game innovation, as well as Csikszentmihalyi's (e.g., 1993) concept of flow. Many of the authors take a constructivist rather than an instructivist approach to the topic and draw from the work of scholars, such as Piaget and Vygotsky. One theme that is repeated throughout many of these articles is the lack of empirical research and the reliance on anecdotal evidence that suggests conceptual learning. While the focus of the articles included in this collection is primarily on the positive aspects of educational gaming, references to concerns, such as violence, bias against girls, and game addiction are included, as well. In general, this annotated bibliography is an attempt to pull together and examine a corpus of the available literature on the topic of virtual worlds in educational settings. It is by no means an exhaustive list of resources; rather, it includes some of the more commonly cited sources related to the use of this type of technology for the purpose of teaching and learning.

The article begins by addressing the various views about video games and the cultural context surrounding their use. It is noted that the QA designers did not set out to embrace or reject technology (specifically, the use of video games in an educational setting); rather, they intended to "develop a technology-rich game without guns that teaches and informs, where the excitement is about learning, growth and the development of a sense of wonder" (p. 87). Moreover, QA is a "vehicle for advancing the social agenda of empowering individuals and communities" (p. 88).

The methods used in the QA design process employed design-based research techniques (also known as design experiments; Collins, 1992; Brown, 1992). Following a flexibly adaptive design, 10 researchers over a period of 30 months collected data from sites in the United States and abroad using a design ethnography approach. Through the data collection process, the QA team discovered that no teacher could cover all of the activities. Therefore, core themes were identified. They include creating a vision, the participatory design process, developing a metacontext, and supporting project implementation. One of the key points that the authors stress is the involvement of the children, parents, and staff in the design process. This type of local control is also one of the challenges in maintaining the integrity of QA in that these adaptations can "result in a metamorphosis that renders the innovation unrecognizable" (p. 100). Other challenges, such as scaling and supporting the users via various methods (i.e., buoys), are also discussed.

The authors conclude with a summary of the QA project, which also includes a discussion about the risks associated with producing and not producing educational games for children. Within this section of the article, ways in which the QA program is a valuable contribution to education are outlined. Once again, an emphasis is placed on the fact that QA: advances a social commitment; is connected to standards; uses an online metagame strategy; employs 3-D technologies; engages girls; offers a flexibly adaptive curriculum; has a multidisciplinary focus; and targets building connections. Overall, the approach to QA is one that intersects education, entertainment, and social commitment.

Begg, M., Dewhurst, D., & Macleod, H. (2005). Game-informed learning: Applying computer game processes to higher education. Innovate, 1(6). Retrieved June 23, 2007, from http://innovateonline.info/index.php?view=article&id=176
As opposed to many of the articles included in this annotated bibliography, this particular piece does not advocate a game-based learning approach. Rather, Begg and his colleagues propose the adoption of game-informed learning. According to the authors, game-based learning builds content into a game, which then becomes the focus of the learning. In contrast, game-informed learning draws from the work of Kolb (1984) and Lewin (1933), and the curriculum is informed by the learning approaches embedded in the gameplay.

The authors continue by outlining the features of gameplay and invite the reader to re-read the section with the term "student" in place of the term "player." Basically, the point of this exercise is to emphasize the constructivist learner paradigm that has been influenced by individuals, such as Piaget (1970) and Vygotsky (1978). Additionally, the formation of identity and the concept of "becoming" rather than "knowing" are part of this model. Following this discussion, two scenarios are presented to illustrate the game-informed learning approach in a classroom setting. While the scenarios are based in a medical school setting, the authors contend that game-informed learning activities are effective in a variety of disciplines and can lead to an immersive experience.

Bogost, I. (2007). Persuasive games: The expressive power of videogames. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
The opening segment that frames Bogost’s argument is devoted to a discussion about rhetoric (i.e., the art of persuasion), which includes procedural representation and rhetoric, visual rhetoric, and interactivity. How rhetoric fits into the model proposed by Greek philosophers, such as Aristotle, is mentioned, but it is emphasized that in ancient Greece, rhetoric referred to more than the art of persuasion; it was oral and public. Bogost points out, though, that Aristotle does not explicitly describe rhetoric as oral persuasion. Moreover, in examining persuasive rhetoric specifically, the author points to Fogg’s captology (i.e., the study of computers as persuasive technologies) and the ways in which it relies on psychological response without engaging users in discourse. Bogost suggests that these environments can also produce what he refers to as a simulation gap – a gap between the rule-based representation and the player’s subjectivity.

From this point, Bogost divides his argument about persuasion and its relationship to video games into three parts: politics, advertising, and education. Docugames (games aligned with documentary films), advergames (games used to deliver embedded ads; simulations of products and services), exergames (games designed to motivate players to engage in physical activity), and religious games are examples of the types of formats Bogost uses to illustrate his points. The features associated with anti-advergames and political games are outlined, as well, and Bogost argues that both can be powerful in that they expose the logic of corporate and political structures. The power also comes through the possibility that games enable that allow players to reflect, critically assess these structures, and generate conversations about them.

Throughout the discussion, interesting facts or videogame trivia are presented. For example, the earliest advergame the author could find was the 1976 arcade game Datsun 280 Zzzap. In 1983, the videogame market crashed, and according to Bogost, this was due to the proliferation of poor quality games (p. 175). Another fact that Bogost notes is the birth of modern product placement, which he dates back to 1982 and the Steven Spielberg film, ET. He also points out that videogames, like those in the Harry Potter series, provide a perspective of Harry’s fictional life that is not available through the books or the films.

In his investigation of educational videogames, the author describes the behaviorlist model, as well as the constructivist framework. He contends that videogame learning is divided between both modes – videogames simulate activities conducted in the real world and they also cultivate higher order learning, including “going meta,” which is a good skill to have in business (p. 240). Sayer’s position on trivium (i.e., grammar, dialectic, and rhetoric), and more specifically, her beliefs on teaching children how to learn are examined as alternative approaches to traditional educational models. Theories presented by Piaget, Dewey, Vygostsky, just to name a few, are also integrated into the conversation. In addition, Bogost differentiates between being school and being educated. According to the author, being schooled is what is traditionally emphasized in education, and it requires students to become an “expert in the actual process of schooling” in order to move up through the ranks of the system (p. 262). On the other hand, being educated is a deeper form of learning that “means understanding how to disrupt a system with new improvements” (p. 263).

Not only are issues surrounding videogame use in the classroom discussed, but Bogost also presents his thoughts on business training games. While he believes that these training games are cost effective, Bogost stresses that they become educational when they move away from the rules and focus on the “procedural rhetoric for the business model” that will affect the employee (p. 282). Near the end of his book, Bogost also mentions the serious game movement. According to the author, the serious game movement provides educators with the opportunity to look beyond the written test as a form of assessment. Instead, he asserts that the goal of serious games is to attract the largest number of learners and to provide them with an opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge in ways that are not always conveyed through words. Moreover, though the work of Michael and Chen, Bogost contends that serious games are about assisting teachers not replacing them.

Bronack, S., Riedl, R., & Tashner, J. (2006). Learning in the zone: A social constructivist framework for distance education in a 3-dimensional virtual world. Interactive Learning Environments, 14(3), 219-232. Retrieved April 27, 2007, from the EBSCO Academic Search Premier database.
Even though the title suggests that a social constructivist framework is a discussion point, the concentration of the article is skewed more toward distance education. The article begins by providing a brief history of distance education in higher education, which includes the use of non-traditional sources, such as games. Not only do the authors discuss distance education and the implementation of games in that context, but they also point out how their program at Appalachian State University differs from these examples. For instance, the students enrolled in the Appalachian State University program are older, K-12 educators. Additionally, the virtual learning environment in which their course is conducted is not a game; rather, it is thought of as a "unique and immersive place for students to learn" (p. 220).

The section that briefly addresses social constructivism focuses on the definition of this type of framework for distance education and the assumptions that correspond to it. For the purpose of this study, the authors define the social constructivist view as "a contiguous process that exists each time people willfully interact with each other in the world around them" (p. 221). The work of Vygotsky (1978) is also invoked as a way to emphasize the importance of the social and the individual in this process. Underlying this conceptual framework are five assumptions, which include the following:

• learning is participatory (communities of practice);
  
• knowledge is social (situated);
  
• learning leads development through predictable stages via shared activity with others (engaging with others); and
  
• learners develop dispositions relative to the communities in which they practice (attitudes, beliefs, and values). (p. 221)

Next, the 3-dimensional virtual world, AET Zone, which was used to support the distance education courses mentioned in this article, is described. The textual description, combined with the accompanying figures, serves to illustrate the various course areas (including the library) available to students in this world. By and large, the snippets of student feedback provided in this article are overwhelmingly positive, which leads the authors to conclude that the AET Zone "learning community" was able to move beyond the boundaries of the traditional classroom setting.

Brown, J. S. (2005). New learning environments for the 21st century. Educause, 4.1-4.54. Retrieved May 8, 2007, from http://www-cdn.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ffp0605.pdf
The utopian vision this article purports is one that constructs learning based on a hybrid model. This model combines "the power of passion-based participation in niche communities of practice with a limited core curriculum for teaching" (p. 4.52). Prior to reaching this conclusion, Brown addresses the learning context of students today, and examines learning models based on work conducted in disciplines such as architecture, physics, and media studies. Aspects of the learning context that are important to keep in mind while looking toward the future of education include the following: today's students learn differently from those in previous generations; the public is less enthusiastic about paying for education; students will have multiple careers after they graduate from college; students who enter the workforce will likely become members of teams; and higher education institutions must evolve into learning institutions.

In examining the innovative learning environments, Brown begins by discussing the education of an architect. In the case of architecture, students learn about the accepted norms and values of the discipline through studio-based learning. This studio-based approach was also adopted at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for an Electricity and Magnetism course. Within the structure of this learning environment, no lecturing takes place; thus, the instructors are able to construct an environment where students learn how to be rather than learn about.

Before launching into a discussion about innovative approaches that are taking place at other institutions, such as Brown University and at the University of Southern California, the author expands on the concept of "learning-to-be." While related to situated cognition and legitimate peripheral participation (LPP), Brown asserts that learning-to-be is a more general concept. He outlines the difference between an apprenticeship model and LPP and concludes that in the learning-to-be situation, the learning and the joining of a community of practice become inseparable. The role of the instructor in this type of learning environment shifts from that of lecturer to one of "simulator, moderator, guide, and mentor" (p. 4.14). For students, they must be literate not only in terms of reading but in writing, as well.

Brown spends some time exploring cell phone use and gaming environments, such as World of Warcraft (WoW). While the cell phone data Brown presents is primarily from an Asian subject pool, the game-based learning results concentrate on a group that is based in the United States. One insight Brown puts forth is that the skills needed to compete in a games-based environment like WoW are similar to those required of CEOs and leaders of non-profit organizations. Brown later examines the role of tinkering and the way it is similar to gaming and open source software development. Blogging and the pro-amateur movement are also woven into the discussion as examples of environments where informal "tinkering" leads to learning.

In his concluding remarks, Brown addresses issues related to what he refers to as the "demand-pull," as opposed to the more traditional "supply-push" model. He states that the shift to a demand-pull model is one where the emphasis is placed on "enabling participation in flows of action, where the learning is on both learning-to-be through enculturation into a practice and on collateral learning" rather than on "holding up stocks of knowledge (learning-about)" (p. 4.46). This leads to Brown's final comments in support of a model that recognizes the "long tail." Amazon is an example of a company that operates within and profits from the long tail. In closing, Brown asserts that a hybrid model that fosters the "rise of the creative, always learning class" (p. 4.51) is the key to creating learning environments for the 21st century.

Bruckman, A. (1996). Finding one's own in cyberspace. Technology Review Magazine. Retrieved May 7, 2007, from http://www-static.cc.gatech.edu/~asb/papers/tr-finding-ones-own.pdf
Even though this article was written in 1996, there are sections that are still applicable to current online spaces. Bruckman begins her discussion by acknowledging the fact that some women have felt uncomfortable in certain areas of cyberspace. To explore these feelings of discomfort, Bruckman employs a bar metaphor. When Bruckman was a summer camp counselor, "bar hopping" was part of the evening activities. Each bar she and her fellow counselors visited had a different atmosphere, ranging from the hominess of Maria's to the disco-dancing theme at the Sandpiper to the biker motif at the Sportsman. Bruckman's point in providing these examples is to emphasize that the visual cues that enable a person to assess the bar community are often absent in online spaces. Nonetheless, she insists that there are alternative ways to find an "appropriate" online community.

Bruckman divides her suggestions for finding an online community into three parts. Her first suggestion is that individuals could construct their own community, and she provides her professional community, MediaMoo, as an example. New York City's ECHO (East Coast Hang Out), founded by Stacy Horn, is presented as another example of how the founder can shape a community. For those who take the do-it-yourself route, Bruckman provides a few design considerations, which include allowing participants to remain anonymous (Bruckman does not advocate anonymity, especially in professional realms), developing an admissions policy (determine who can join and have a moderator), and publicizing the community (the author prefers a word-of-mouth approach). It is within this context that Bruckman introduces her second suggestion - finding birds of a feather.

As the previous paragraph implies, Bruckman found that an admissions policy and a moderator contributed to the success of MediaMoo. To illustrate the effect of a moderator, Bruckman compares the characteristics of two Usenet groups - alt.feminism and soc.feminism. Messages posted to alt.feminism are filled with what Bruckman describes as "angry words of angry people." In contrast, soc.feminism is moderated, and only messages that "pass muster" appear to the group. Bruckman does note that there is one problem with a moderator model, and that is the power this individual has over the other participants.

Publicizing the community is another point included in Bruckman's list of suggestions. Based on the discussion, Bruckman strongly supports learning about the various groups via word-of-mouth. The third suggestion Bruckman makes is associated with the diversity of the group. In this section, she mentions recommender systems, such as Webhound, and HOMR. Bruckman also points out that surprisingly enough, architecture departments are the entities that are proposing innovations related to cyberspace. In conclusion, Bruckman argues that those who unhappily find themselves in a Sportsman-like online community should find a more suitable one before condemning them all.

Carlson, S. (2003, August 15). Can Grand Theft Auto inspire professors? Educators say the virtual worlds of video games help students think more broadly. Chronicle of Higher Education, 49(49), A31-A33. Retrieved July 11, 2007, from
http://chronicle.com/free/v49/i49/49a03101.htm
Even though this article was written in 2003, it provides a clear and concise overview of the rise of the video game in education. James Gee, a professor of education at the University of Wisconsin at Madison , and his work are the focus of this piece. Gee believes that there is much to learn from video games, including controversial ones, such as Grand Theft Auto, and that these games "hold the key to salvaging American education." Additionally, Gee contends that "games have to be challenging enough to entertain, yet easy enough to solve."

According to the article, Gee became interested in these virtual worlds when his young son began playing video games. Some researchers have dismissed Gee's work, and continue to do so, but there are supporters like Celia Pearce, the associate director of the Game Culture and Technology Lab at the University of California at Irvine. Pearce asserts that teachers and professors are at a disadvantage because they do not understand the games their students are playing, nor do they try to figure out ways to incorporate the technology into their curriculum. Those who disagree with this position are skeptical about teaching worldviews, as opposed to what Gee refers to as "historical trivia." He goes on to state that the key difference is one that emphasizes creating rather than memorizing.

Over time, Gee has found that the interest in video games for educational purposes has increased. As a result, there are more students focusing on gaming and educational topics for their theses. New hires at Gee's current institution - the University of Wisconsin - are also individuals who have educational gaming experience. However, these recent trends do not mean that there are no longer matters to resolve regarding this field of study. Gee mentions the potential for conflicts of interests for those with any connection to video game companies, as well as the issues surrounding the No Child Left Behind mandates, which often prevent teachers from incorporating more creative elements into the curriculum.

Castronova, E. (2005). Synthetic worlds: The business and culture of online games. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
As the title suggests, this often cited book focuses heavily, but not solely, on the economic aspects of online games, such as EverQuest, Counter-Strike, and World of Warcraft, just to name a few. The approach Castronova takes in his three part discussion (13 chapters) of what he refers to as "synthetic worlds" is a conservative one. He is also cautious about using the term "virtual" and attempts to avoid its use as much as possible. In fact, he argues that there is not a virtual reality, and never was. Thus, Castronova prefers to use the more precise term, "synthetic," to describe these worlds.

Aside from his argument that synthetic worlds are worth examining (the author states that the fact that millions of avatars are running around in these worlds should be enough for people to take notice), Castronova incorporates a variety of terms that are either related to online worlds or to online gaming. The discussion that surrounds terms such as proskenion (taken from ancient Greek theater), MUDflation (the price of some goods plummets while others skyrocket), and machinima (the creation of film sequences using game technology), is one of the many elements that make this such a compelling and entertaining piece to read. He also introduces the phrase "avatar-mediated communication" (p. 68), which is text and voice communication that also enables a type of physical bodily communication through gestures and positions of the avatar.

While economics provides the basis for much of Castronova's discussion, on occasion, he does interject educational considerations into the conversation. This primarily surfaces in Chapter 12 with an examination of the educational, training, and research potential afforded by the synthetic world technology. Not only does Castronova contend that synthetic worlds provide an immersive experience, which educators often advocate, these worlds also provide scholars with a plethora of research opportunities. Like other articles, the concept of fun is mentioned several times, and according to Castronova's assessment of the design of synthetic worlds, "fun isn't everything, it is the only thing" (p. 271). Shifting that line of thought to education, he points to Rheingold's position on fun. Based on Castronova's interpretation, Rheingold suggests that "the importance of play is not fun per se, but rather the way that VR [virtual reality] and fun could be used for education" (p. 292).

Moreover, Castronova believes that academic institutions should take the lead in the formation of these online environments. In fact, he states, "Were universities to become significant producers of synthetic world services, we could be fairly confident, I think, that the absolute worst would not happen" (p. 264). To put it simply, Castronova believes that the "absolute worst" occurs when the balance of competing interests becomes out of synch. At this point, though, the policies that govern issues surrounding personal and community interests, as well as governance and accountability, are still up in the air. Overall, Castronova attempts to provide a skeptical view of synthetic worlds, while also recognizing the impact they may have on the lives of those in the "real world."

Childress, M., & Braswell, R. (2006). Using massively multiplayer online role-playing games for online learning. Distance Education, 27(2), 187-196. Retrieved May 7, 2007, from the IngentaConnect database.
The focus of this article is on the cooperative learning possibilities associated with massively multiplayer online role playing games (MMORPGs), in general, and Second Life (SL), specifically. This article opens with a description of an educational scenario that is reminiscent of individuals gathering together in a real life coffee house; the only difference is that the interactions that take place in this example are conducted via SL. One thing the authors stress at this point is that MMORPGs provide more opportunities for interaction and enable a sense of immediacy that is difficult to create in settings, such as chat rooms.

In the next section, a brief history of massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs) is presented, starting with multi-user dungeons (MUDs). Individuals who interact in MUDs do so by using text commands. As a result of technological advancements, though, these MUDs have evolved into three-dimensional spaces, such as MMOGs and MMORPGs, where people represent themselves through their avatars. The authors believe that these 3-dimensional spaces "closely replicate real-world learning experiences" and are conducive to the creation of "highly cooperative learning activities" (p. 189).

Details about the use of SL as an educational environment and the activities that are currently being carried out in that space are briefly described. One area of SL designed specifically for educational purposes is the "Campus: Second Life" section of the world. According to the authors, this "campus" context will foster a greater sense of community among participating students. The authors also believe that MMORPGs are "rich environments for cooperative learning-based activities" (p. 192), and some of these activities, such as those involving partners and groups, are outlined. Additionally, the authors point to web-based models, and insist that the work of scholars in this area, such as Bonk and Reynolds (1997), is applicable to MMORPGs. In closing, the authors assert that as the technology advances, the educational options associated with MMORPGs will only increase.

Cittaro, L., & Roberto, R. (2007). Web3D technologies in learning, education and training: Motivations, issues, opportunities. Computers & Education, 49(1), 3-18.
This article provides an overview of the educational possibilities associated with Web3D technologies. The authors begin by examining the advantages and disadvantages of virtual reality systems in comparison to Web 3D solutions. Typically, VR systems are expensive due to the special hardware requirements (e.g., head-mounted displays, multiple projectors, input devices), which leads to very limited availability. These systems are also very complex to design. In contrast, though, because of the minimal hardware involved, Web 3D technologies are lower in cost and are accessible to any individual with Internet access. Further, Web 3D standards are similar to those for other multimedia products.

Before discussing the educational possibilities associated with Web 3D solutions, Cittaro and his colleague outline the various VR modeling languages and eXtensible 3D (X3D) graphics. According to the authors, the idea of a 3D language for Web content dates back to the work Mark Pesce and Tony Parisi conducted in 1994. The focus then shifts to a more technical discussion of VRML and its design goals. In terms of X3D graphics, the ways in which they improve upon VRML are examined.

The remaining segments of this article concentrate on the pedagogical motivations and the educational possibilities associated with Web 3D technologies. One of the first things the authors point out is that virtual environments (VEs) support a constructivist model, specifically situated learning and shared meaning through collaborative experiences. In addition to being aligned with a constructivist approach, it is possible to use Web 3D technologies to develop educational VEs (EVEs) within several different contexts, which include: formal education (e.g. classroom or laboratory sessions); informal education (e.g., museums and cultural events); distance or electronic learning; vocational training; and special needs education.

Advantages and disadvantages of Web 3D technologies are also included in the discussion. Starting with advantages, the authors note that there are certain experiences that are possible within a VE that are not otherwise. They also suggest that certain experiences in VEs are more realistic and provide more detailed representations of the topics being addressed in the session. Also, these technologies support multiple viewpoints. Other advantages include the "persona effect," the introduction of social dimensions to distance education, and the option of non-verbal communication techniques.

While there are a number of positive aspects associated with Web 3D technologies, there are also limitations. For example, Cittaro and Roberto indicate that some individuals have difficulty navigating VEs and become frustrated by the learning experience. Teachers may also lack technological experience, and thus prefer more traditional methods. Additionally, learners may have high expectations and are disappointed when the technologies do not mimic reality. Moreover, Web 3D technologies cannot easily adopt VR hardware. The authors conclude that while there are educational benefits associated with Web 3D technologies, there is a lack of long-term studies with large groups to validate the positive reports.

Coffman, T., & Klinger, M. B. (2008). Utilizing virtual worlds in education: The implications for practice. International Journal of Social Sciences, 2(1), 29-33. Retrieved October 2, 2007, from http://www.waset.org/ijss/v2/v2-1-5.pdf
Coffman and Klinger focus their discussion on multiuser virtual worlds, such as Second Life. In particular, their interest circles around the formation of an online presence through avatars, the in-world economy based on Linden Dollars, and the creation of content by those who reside in this world. Further, the authors believe that the challenge for educators investigating the use of these worlds for teaching and learning is determining how best to integrate SL into the curriculum.

Virtual worlds support rich, engaging, learning experiences. The implementation of learner-centered models and the process of higher order thinking are also touted by the Coffman and Klinger. In addition, collaboration with other students is possible in these environments. According to the authors who take a constructivist position, "knowledge-building communities have the potential to build many collaborative strategies through mentors and peer role models" (p. 30).

de Freitas, S. (2006). Using games and simulations for supporting learning. Learning, Media and Technology, 31(4), 343-358.
A grounded theory approach was used by the author to assess perceptions of games and simulations in education, and this piece examines that process. De Freitas frames the discussion by outlining the definitions of games, simulations, and exploratory learning. While the lines between games and simulations have begun to blur, de Freitas considers the difference to lie in the fact that "simulations represent aspects of reality while games do not" (p. 344). However, she points out that it is possible to reverse this situation, especially in the case of serious games (i.e., a game in which education is its primary purpose). In some cases, blended solutions have been suggested, and this convergence of games and simulations has been referred to as "gamesims," as opposed to "commercial off-the-shelf" or "COTS" products. Exploratory learning - "a mode of learning whereby learning takes place through exploring environments…with tutorial or peer support" (p. 344) - is a common feature of both games and simulations.

Because much of the literature points to the negative aspects of gaming, particularly issues related to violence and gender bias, de Freitas conducted a study to determine whether the perceptions matched these claims. Three groups were identified to participate in the research, and they included tutors, learners, and experts. The procedures employed surveys, interviews, and workshop activities. One lesson that was learned from the responses to these measures was how to integrate games and simulations into teaching and training situations. In general, the experts were proponents of using games and simulations for problem-based learning situations, and most supported a constructivist rather than an instructivist approach. While it became clear that games and simulations have the potential to support higher-order learning, some of the experts pointed out that not everyone learns in this visual manner.

Other key issues were raised as a result of her study, and de Freitas investigates the coverage of those in the literature. The first was an increase in learner motivation. According to de Freitas, much of the literature relies on anecdotal evidence, and empirical evidence describing learner outcomes is frequently absent. De Freitas also found that the participants in this study assumed that learner completion rates were higher in situations involving games and simulations. These perceptions were linked to the fact that learners have been found to positively associate learning through play. Learning via these online environments may also appeal to multiple intelligences. Additionally, games and simulations have the potential to attract a wider audience, foster collaborative learning, and accelerate learning time. In conclusion, though, de Freitas acknowledges that these perceptions are not well represented by empirical evidence; thus, research confirming learner outcomes in gaming environments is needed.

de Freitas, S. (2007). Learning in immersive worlds: A review of game-based learning. Retrieved April 8, 2007, from the JISC website: http://www.jisc.ac.uk/media/documents/programmes/elearning_innovation/gaming%20report_v3.3.pdf
This 72-page report provides an extensive overview of games in various educational settings and is designed as a guide for practioners. Games and simulations are not new to learning. In fact, training environments have often used simulations, especially those associated with the military and medicine. With the rise in popularity of the Internet and the proliferation of personal computers, the potential associated with games in an educational setting is being realized. Gaming tools are also becoming easier to use and no longer require knowledge of complex programming languages in order to modify them. However, areas that could present obstacles to the adoption of games by educators include the lack of empirical evidence pointing to learning outcomes, as well as a lack of consensus on the terminology. In general, though, de Freitas believes that designers, educators, and learners need to come together in order to move toward the creation of serious games.

The second part of this report outlines the various uses of games in practice. Points of discussion include modifying games software (otherwise known as modding), game playing strategies, and using commercial off-the-shelf (i.e., COTS) products for learning. Skills supported by game-based learning approaches, such as reflection, as well as the pitfalls associated with playing games, are also noted.

De Freitas highlights two emerging trends in game development, and they include modding and participation in design. Modding is commonly found in multiplayer online games, whereas participation in design has ties to e-learning contexts. Both are a more user-centered approach to game design. For example, in the case of participation in design, de Freitas points to the work of Allison Druin (2002) who considers individuals to have four roles in this process - user, tester, informant, and design partner.

In addition to trends and user roles, several frameworks are outlined in this report. One was designed by Russell Francis (2006) for his study of game-based learning in the classroom. Francis incorporates the following concepts into his model: situated learning in a virtual environment; overt instruction and reflective discussion; practical media production; and critical framing. Another framework examined in this section is the four-dimensional framework (FDF) developed by de Freitas and Oliver (2006). According to de Freitas, this FDF advocates a "pedagogic approach that utilizes associative, cognitive, and situative approaches to learning, through an alignment of learning outcomes with learning activities and modes of assessment" (p. 23). The dimensions of this framework take the context, learner specification, representation, and pedagogic model or approach used into consideration.

In Part Three, examples of games as learning experiences are divided into three categories - games as metaphors, games or simulations as microworlds, and games as tools (for therapy and skill development), also referred to as "drill-and-practice" games. Case studies for each category are described, as are the challenges faced, and the solutions employed. The cases range from using games in an elementary school setting to evaluating the effectiveness of teaching engineers via COTS to assessing the impact of games on heath care and therapy. A case study examining Second Life as a metaverse is also integrated into the discussion.

Part Four of the report takes a look at future trends that may impact the use of games in educational settings. The serious game movement, modding, the growth of online gaming, and new forms of gaming, which include mobile gaming and Alternate Reality Games, are a few of the topics covered in this section. Not only are these trends described, but their implications for the education sector are addressed in the examination. Overall, the potential associated with games in education is great; however, the author stresses that more empirical research is needed, as are a common set of definitions for gaming terms.

Delwiche, A. (2003). MMORPG's in the college classroom. The State of Play: Law, Games, and Virtual Worlds. November 2003, New York Law School. Retrieved May 1, 2007, from http://www.nyls.edu/docs/delwiche.pdf
Delwiche uses this article as a forum to reflect upon his experience teaching an ethnographic research methods course - one that also included a component on cyber-culture themes. After a brief introduction to the concept of gaming in the classroom, the author launches into a detailed description of an undergraduate course he taught at the University of Washington (UW). Thirty-six students were enrolled in this course, and because it was scheduled in the evening, several of these individuals worked part-time or full-time jobs. EverQuest was the game that was selected for the course, and none of the students had prior experience with this particular MMORPG. After solving some of the technical issues, the students found that one of the most challenging aspects of the class was simply their attempts to navigate EverQuest. For the purpose of comparison, the students were also exposed to a MUD; many, but not all, preferred the look and feel of EverQuest to the text-based MUD.

At the end of the course, Delwiche received approximately 100 email messages from EverQuest gamers who had heard about his project. Some of the gamers found it amusing that anyone would study this particular MMORPG. Others expressed concerns that the game was too complex for students to fully comprehend in a semester course. A few suggested more appropriate forums to explore the concept of online role playing, such as MUSHes (multi-user shared hallucinations) or Second Life. And finally, several gamers warned Delwiche about the possibility of player addiction. Delwiche happily reports that none of the students were addicted to EverQuest at the end of the UW course. When viewed as a whole, Delwiche considers his experience teaching research methods in a world like EverQuest to be a successful one. He also believes that virtual worlds are environments that enable students to safely explore the idea of being an ethnographer.

Delwiche, A. (2006). Massively multiplayer online games (MMOs) in the new media classroom. Educational Technology & Society, 9(3), 160-172. Retrieved May 7, 2007, from http://www.ifets.info/journals/9_3/14.pdf
While this article revisits Delwiche's experience teaching research methods to undergraduates via EverQuest, it also examines the use of Second Life to teach the fundamentals of videogame design and criticism. Delwiche begins by briefly examining the role of massively multiplayer online games (MMOs) in education and asserts that these worlds serve as "living, breathing textbooks that provide students with first-hand exposure to critical theory and professional practice" (p. 161). While the 2003 article includes a detailed description of the EverQuest research methods course, it is worth noting that this 2006 piece provides more substantial background information about the EverQuest game itself. In contrast to the EverQuest experience, though, students enrolled in the videogame design course, were given the task of creating games in SL. The students quickly learned how to master the SL environment, which was not the case with EverQuest.

Overall, Delwiche asserts that the EverQuest and the Second Life courses were successful. While no empirical data was collected, anecdotal evidence gleaned by the author suggests that learning did occur and that the students did produce quality, highly creative research. Delwiche wraps up this piece by outlining three recommendations. First, instructors using MMOs should warn their students about the possibility of becoming addicted to the game. Second, instructors should also evaluate different MMOs before selecting one to use in their classrooms. For example, things to consider when selecting an MMO include accessibility, genre, and extensibility. And finally, Delwiche suggests that in order for a class to effectively use MMOs, the instructor should outline the course goals and objectives at the onset.

Dickey, M. D. (2003). Teaching in 3D: Pedagogical affordances and constraints of 3D virtual worlds for synchronous distance learning. Distance Education, 24(1), 105-121. Retrieved May 8, 2007, from the IngentaConnect database.
In an attempt to explore constructivist learning within a three-dimensional world, Dickey conducts an evaluative case study of a 3D object modeling course conducted through Active Worlds University. She contends that the purpose of focusing on one course within a particular world is to provide a thick description of the discourse, experiential, and resource tools available in Active Worlds that can serve to support a constructivist learning model. Dickey begins by describing constructivist learning environments, which represent an epistemological shift from an objectivist to a constructivist perspective. Active learning, collaboration, and "learning by doing" are incorporated into her discussion. The way text-based environments, such as MUDs (Multiple User Domains) and MOOs (Multiple User Domains Object Oriented), are able to fit into a constructivist model are noted, as well. Dickey concludes, though, that 3D virtual environments may provide enhancements to the learning environment that go beyond ones that rely solely on text.

Affordances of the technology are also an important part of Dickey's examination. After providing a brief description of affordances, she later integrates this concept into her analysis. For example, the students and the instructor in the 3D object modeling course relied on chat for course discussions. One of the affordances of synchronous chat is feedback, and the course participants were able to receive comments back immediately. Another affordance of the chat tool is the ability to mute participants. For example, in one class session, the instructor muted a disruptive male student, which meant that no one would receive messages from that individual until he was unmuted.

Constraints of the system are outlined, as well. In the case of the chat tool in Active Worlds, the system would only allow 255 characters. Additionally, because of the sans serif font style, one user could appear as another user. Students quickly learned that an l, for example, looked like a 1 in this font; thus, Builder M and Bui1der M looked like one and the same on the screen. Another system constraint was related to the limited mobility of the avatars, such as the ability to gesture and point. Despite these limitations, Dickey concludes that the affordances of the system outweigh the constraints, and enable 3D virtual environments to support a constructivist learning paradigm.

Dickey, M. D. (2005). Engaging by design: How engagement strategies in popular computer and video games can inform instructional design. Education Training Research and Development, 53(2), 67-83. Retrieved May 8, 2007, from
http://www.springerlink.com/content/672h1675qx1068h6/fulltext.pdf
The purpose of this article is to assess the ways in which game design could provide instructional designers with an "architectural model for promoting engaged learning" (p. 80). Dickey acknowledges the fact that the goals of commercial games and educational games are different (e.g., commercial games are produced for entertainment, whereas those designed for educational purposes are focused on learning). Nonetheless, she believes that educational products produced by instructional designers could include many of the design elements that are present in popular commercial games.

Dickey asserts that engaged learning involves active learning and collaboration, which are a combination of cognitive and social skills. Thus, Dickey's investigation involves a two-pronged approach that examines constructivist and cognitive research. Based on her perspective, "there is value in using multiple lenses" (p. 71).

The first avenue Dickey investigates is the methods used by game designers to engage players. She begins by exploring player positioning and the "God's eye" view of the two-dimensional gamespace. With advances in technology, this has shifted to an isometric view, which Dickey concludes is approximately a two and one half dimension space. Further still, as Dickey notes, games operating within a three-dimensional space move the "player into the environment by using first person POV (point-of-view)" (p. 71). This is the change that Dickey believes enables players to become more embedded in the game, which has implications for instructional designers. What is more, she debates whether the POV approach is more aligned with the behavioralist perspective or with a constructive epistemology. In the end, Dickey concludes that games are more aligned with the constructivist learning perspective than with the behavioralist model.

Narrative is another design aspect that Dickey investigates. She points out that there are both advocates and opponents to the inclusion of this feature in game design. One problematic issue is that narrative is linear, whereas storytelling is not. Dickey outlines two types of narratives - plot-based and character-based. She also discusses the purpose of backstory and cut scenes in the creation of a narrative. Ultimately, the challenge many game designers face is how to develop a coherent story while still enabling the player to modify that story.

Interactive design is the next element Dickey addresses in this article. Setting, roles and characters, and hooks are features that are of primary concern. In her discussion about setting, Dickey identifies five different dimensions: physical, temporal, environmental, emotional, and ethical. Moving on to roles and characters, importance is placed on the creation of compelling characters. As is true with other articles on the topic of gaming, this one also emphasizes that the games must include goals and rules - basically "hooks" - that keep individual playing the game.

Dickey wraps up the article by asserting that game and instructional design are not polar opposites. She also stresses that the purpose of this examination was not to produce a set of guidelines. On the contrary, Dickey claims that it is "difficult and perhaps premature to generate operations guidelines," and concludes that it is "more productive to supply exploratory questions" (p. 78). Two areas that were not examined during the course of this study were critical or cultural issues, but Dickey implies that these are areas for future research.

Dickey, M. D. (2005). Three-dimensional virtual worlds and distance learning: Two case studies of Active Worlds as a medium for distance education. British Journal of Educational Technology 36(3), 439-451. Retrieved May 7, 2007, from the EBSCO Academic Search Premier database.
Through the use of two case studies - one conducted in a formal educational setting and the other in an environment that was more informal - Dickey provides evidence that emphasizes the possibilities associated with virtual environments, such as Active Worlds (AW). After a brief discussion about MOOs, Dickey presents her theoretical framework for this article, which is situated within a constructivist paradigm of learning. Dickey notes that the assumption associated with this type of framework is that "learners construct understanding by interacting with information, tools, and materials, as well as by collaborating with other learners" (p. 441).

The two examples discussed in this piece were selected by the author because they represent different ways to synchronously and asynchronously use the AW platform. In the first, Dickey examines a required course for undergraduate business majors. While the course was primarily asynchronous, there were opportunities for the students to interact synchronously, particularly while completing group projects. Students reported that they enjoyed the experience, attrition rates dropped, and many commented that they felt as if they were part of the virtual environment. Due to the sense of anonymity, students also were less inhibited in their interactions, at least initially.

The second example involved a three-dimensional object-modeling course taught in a more informal learning space within Active Worlds. In contrast to the business course, this one relied solely on synchronous discussions. Dickey suggests that the AW course supported situated learning in that the course involved an authentic activity, the students had access to an expert who modeled the activities, and the learning environment included scaffolding and mentoring. Moreover, students learned by "adopting multiple roles and perspectives" (p. 448). In general, the main point to take away from this article is that it is important to create educational environments where learners can communicate and collaborate.

Dickey, M. D. (2006). Game design narrative for learning: Appropriating adventure game design narrative devices and techniques for the design of interactive learning environments. Educational Technology Research and Development, 54(3), 245-263. Retrieved May 8, 2007, from http://www.springerlink.com/content/h3gn553h68002q47/fulltext.pdf
In this article, Dickey examines the use of narrative, which is a common feature in many video and computer games, and explores the ways it could facilitate learning. She begins by reviewing the literature to determine why computer games are popular. Flow state interaction - including the feedback cycle and motivation - and intrinsic motivation, are two ideas discussed in this section. Dickey also examines concepts such as intrinsic fantasy - "the reciprocal relationship between game play and fantasy" (p. 247) - and endogenous fantasy - the weaving together of content (fantasy) and story. Multimodal literacies and goal-based scenarios (they are similar to the structure of game design narrative) are briefly noted, as well.

It is through a constructivist lens that Dickey frames her analysis of narrative use in game design. She quickly points out that narrative is more common in certain types of games, such as role-playing games and action/adventure games. Dickey deduces that in some cases the narrative is the game, and she adds that adventure games are among the oldest in this genre that can trace its roots to narrative.

Dickey continues by discussing the connection between narrative and motivation. In her mind, motivation has two components: plot hooks and emotional proximity. Plot hooks are defined as "unanswered questions that keep the reader guessing"; emotional proximity is characterized as "empathy and identification the player feels toward his or her character in a game" (p. 251). Dickey believes that narrative provides the initial and continuing motivation for the game, as well as the skills that can then be applied to real world situations. She also asserts that the narrative provides a "cognitive framework for problem solving by establishing what is plausible for constructing causal relationships" (p. 253). Further, Dickey considers the interaction between the characters, the environment, and the events to create plausibility.

Based on the work conducted by Vogler (1998), Dickey outlines game narrative design heuristics that are intended to serve as a guide for instructional designers. Six recommendations are provided, and they include: present the initial challenge; identify potential obstacles and develop puzzles, minor challenges, and resources; identify and establish roles; establish the physical, temporal, environmental and emotional, and ethical dimensions of the environment; create a backstory; and develop cut scenes to support the development of the narrative story line.

Ebner, M., & Holzinger, A. (in press). Successful implementation of user-centered game-based learning in higher education: An example from civil engineering. Computers & Education. Preprint retrieved May 8, 2007, from http://user.meduni-graz.at/andreas.holzinger/holzinger/papers%20en/A46_GameBased_Learning.pdf
Using game-based learning theory as their guide, Ebner and Holzinger developed an educational software program for students in a civil engineering course. The purpose was to construct an educational game that would make a complex topic more accessible to students. Components were added to the game to increase the likelihood of incidental learning and to enable students to quickly distinguish the correct paths and solutions from the wrong ones.

The game was divided into what the authors refer to as main screens. These screens included the following five categories: the start screen; the info screen; the main screen; six levels, which differ in degree of difficulty; and high score list. After conducting preliminary tests on the software, Ebner and Holzinger determined that the optimal number of participants at one time was 3 to 5 students per class period.

Forty-seven students completed a pre-test and were then divided into two groups - students who played the game, and those who did not. The game was also made accessible to the public, which means that there was a community of online individuals who participated in the game. In the end, a total of 60 individuals completed the post-test. Based on the collected data, the main finding was that there was no difference in the test results of students who played the game and those who did not. However, the authors point out that those who played the game enjoyed the experience.

Elliott, J., Adams, L., & Bruckman, A. (2002). No magic bullet: 3D video games in education. Proceedings of ICLS 2002 Seattle, WA. Retrieved June 26, 2007, from http://www.cc.gatech.edu/~asb/papers/aquamoose-icls02.pdf
AquaMOOSE is a 3D learning environment designed to "facilitate new kinds of math learning." Rather than using a learner-centered design approach, Elliott and his colleagues chose an alternative method, one that did not first take the students' and instructors' needs into account in the design of the software. Instead, the authors wanted to determine whether this particular software could create a new learning experience for students who were enrolled in a pre-calculus class at a suburban Atlanta high school.

The students were divided into a control group and an experimental group; the traditional curriculum was used with the control group, whereas the experimental group was allowed to use AquaMOOSE during classroom lab sessions. Students participated in the study for eight school days, and both groups completed pre- and post-tests. Interestingly enough, there was no statistically significant difference between the performance of the students in the control and experimental groups. In fact, some of the students in the experimental group who participated in the interview sessions commented that the software confused them even more than the text-based lessons.

Other issues also surfaced during the course of this research. Because AquaMOOSE was characterized as "game-like," students expected something similar to commercial video games. The computer lab itself was also problematic. Computers did not always work, students did not have enough space and/or chairs, and the rows were facing in different directions. These are merely a few of the difficulties that Elliott and his group encountered in the lab setting. In general, the authors found that the classroom was a "generally a hectic and often unpredictable environment." Moreover, they conclude that the instruction that took place in the experimental group sessions was very similar to the approach taken with the control group.

Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. ACM Computers in Entertainment, 1(1), 1-4. Retrieved May 8, 2007, from the ACM Digital Library database.
This brief article summarizes some of the key points made in Gee's 2003 book, What Video Games Have to Teach Us about Learning and Literacy. Gee begins this article by emphasizing his belief that games can foster learning. The example he uses to illustrate this point is taken from fieldwork conducted at the University of Wisconsin involving seven-year old children who played Age of Mythology. Not only did these children play this game, but they also checked out books about mythology from the library, and wrote their own mythological stories. The surprising part was that the children were doing this learning at home, not at school.

The remaining portion of the article focuses on what Gee refers to as "good learning principles" (p. 2). While 36 principles are included in his book, only eight are discussed in this paper. The ones listed here include: information on demand; tasks that are "challenging, but do-able"; players as co-creators of the game world; the presentation of problems that serve as guides that allow players to form generalizations; games as models for expertise; motivation; "action at a distance"; playing a character; and collaboration (pp. 2-3). Gee concludes that good games "allow people to re-create themselves in new worlds and achieve recreation and deep learning at one and the same time" (p. 3).

Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York, NY: Palgrave/St. Martin's.
While Gee does not believe that video games are a replacement for books, he does recognize that many of the attributes associated with good video games are ones that are instrumental to future learning improvements. In this book, he identifies 36 principles that have been built into video games, things such as the "psychosocial moratorium," active critical thinking, identity, situated meanings, and the importance of affinity groups. Gee asserts that these, and the other principles, are relevant to learning beyond the game itself. He divides this argument into six parts and integrates relevant learning principles into the discussion.

Additionally, he presents the experiences players have with video games, including his own, as a way to clarify his position on educational gaming. For example, it is in his examination of the roles an individual's network and affinity group (i.e., community of practice) play in creating knowledge that Gee mentions his familiarity with the cheat sheet for the game Half-Life. In this case, some of the players could not get the cheat sheet to work, but Gee figured out that it required a DOS command, which, as he points out, many of the players were too young to remember. While Gee thinks of himself as a "weak link" in the group, he was, nonetheless, able to contribute his knowledge of DOS to the group; thus, concluding that "even a weak link in a network can make the network more powerful in the right circumstances" (p. 189).

Gee argues that video games are powerful for a number of other reasons too. For one, he contends that video games stress active learning and critical thinking skills. These games also allow for multiple solutions rather than telling players the "right" way to solve the problem. Moreover, Gee implies that players are the ones who set their achievement standards and use those to judge their performance accordingly. With regards to the world of video games, Gee concludes that "hard is not bad and easy is not good" (p. 165), but he is doubtful that students would make such a claim about their science class.

During the course of Gee's discussion, he attempts to address issues such as the lack of content and violence in video games. He asserts that many organizations, like the neo-Nazi National Alliance, recognize that video games are powerful tools that can enable players to learn content. Gee deduces that the power of this learning, though, "resides in the ways in which they meld learning and identity" (p. 199), which in this case is both good and bad; yet, Gee declares that in order to work against groups, like the National Alliance, we must understand them first, and that is where video games can come into play.

As is evident in the National Alliance example, Gee does not dismiss the fact that video games may include inappropriate and sometimes violent content. However, he believes that good games can provide learning situations that go beyond the current "skill and drill" educational system. In response to those who insist that video games are violent, Gee states that "in reality, video games do violence to these people's notions of what makes learning powerful and schools good and fair" (p. 205).

Gee, J. P. (2005). Why are video games good for learning? Retrieved May 8, 2007, from http://www.academiccolab.org/resources/documents/MacArthur.pdf
Gee begins this article by asserting that schools can adopt the learning principles built into good video games even if the games themselves are not incorporated into the curriculum. From that point, Gee outlines the reasons why video games are good for learning, and he refers to the games that are of interest to him as "action-and-goal-directed preparations for, and simulations of, embodied experience" (p. 7). The first positive game attribute that is mentioned in this article is that the player is inside of the simulation and is charged with formulating goals and solving problems within the game world. Next, Gee points out that when scientists speak about their work, they often "talk and think as if they were inside not only the simulation they build but even the graphs they draw" (p. 4). Gee believes that simulated video game environments can mimic this type of scenario for students.

In the past, the mind has been thought of in many different ways. According to Gee, the pictures of the mind have evolved from the "mind as a slate waiting to be written on" to the "mind as software" to more recently the "mind as a network connection" (p. 7). Gee later proposes that another metaphor to add to the list is the mind as a video game. He goes on to suggest that like the avatar in the video game planning for action to accomplish goals, individuals navigating their way through the real world learn best when they can imagine a situation and prepare to act accordingly.

Affordances are also integrated into Gee's discussion, and he defines this concept in the following manner:

[An affordance is] a feature of the world (real or virtual) that will allow for a certain action to be taken, but only if it is matched by an ability in an actor who has the wherewithal to carry out such an action. (pp. 9-10)

Gee concludes this section by describing what a learning game would look like. He notes that it would include problems and challenges, and winning would involve "feeling a sense of accomplishment through the production of knowledge to solve deep problems" (p. 11).

Other video game characteristics that are applicable to learning environments are also discussed. Concepts such as "performance before competence" (p. 13) - the ability of players to act before being completely competent - "cross-functional affiliation" (p. 14) - a method that enables player to create new ways of sharing knowledge - and "situated meaning" (p. 15) - situating the words into a particular context - are ones that Gee finds particularly relevant. He also believes that the melding of personal and in-game goals that result from open-ended games are other characteristics that make video games good for learning. Gee concludes by arguing that the key to learning in and out of school rests upon the incorporation of good learning principles, even in cases where video games are not present.

Gibson, D., Aldrich, C., & Prensky, M. (2007). Games and simulations in online learning: Research and development frameworks. Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing.
This book is a collection of articles that discuss different aspects of games and simulations in educational settings. The 18 chapters are divided into five sections, including topics, such as situating games and simulations in education, social analyses of these tools, and recommendations for teacher skills in online worlds. Some of the articles are merely a review of the literature surrounding the use of technology in the classroom. Others present a scenario in which a virtual world or simulation was developed and tested; the results of those studies are presented along with a discussion about the applicability of games in education. One of the strongest points of this collection is its inclusion of educational theories, such as those outlined by Dede, Felder, and Kolb, and the ways in which video games fit into those models.

Gredler, M. E. (2004). Games and simulations and their relationships to learning. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (pp. 571-581). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Gredler begins by pointing out the similarities and differences between games and simulations, as well as their historical connection to the military. While both games and simulations are discussed in the introduction, Gredler focuses a substantial portion of the article solely on simulations. Nonetheless, the distinctions she makes between games and simulations are worth noting. According to Gredler, games are a "competitive exercise in which the objective is to win," whereas simulations are "open-ended evolving situations with many interacting variables" (p. 571). Gredler also specifies important characteristics associated with simulations, which include: a) complex real-world situations; b) definite participant roles; c) data-rich environments; and d) feedback to participants.

Next, Gredler outlines a conceptual framework for the analysis of games and simulations. The main take-away point from this section is the difference between surface structure and deep structure. Based on Gredler's definitions, surface structure is "the paraphernalia and observable mechanics of an exercise"; in contrast, a deep structure is the "psychological mechanisms operating in the exercise" (p. 572). Gredler does include a discussion about the purposes of academic games, as well as essential design criteria. However, she concludes by declaring that a current problem in the field is the absence of video games designed for the classroom.

In comparison to her discussion on educational games, Gredler provides a rather extensive view of simulations. She makes a point of noting that games focus on winning, whereas the goal of simulations is to solve real world problems. It is in this section of the chapter that Gredler discusses authentic processes and "reality of function," which includes the "thoughts of participants as well as their actions or words" (p. 573). She also emphasizes the importance of the social reality the experience represents.

Gredler goes on to discuss other types of simulations. For example, symbolic simulations involve the students acting as researchers to test their assumptions associated with the variables included in the model. Other technology-based exercises, such as problem-solving exercises with simulated materials, which are limited by the fact that this category can include a wide-range of activities, are part of the discussion. In addition, immersive virtual environments are examined, as well.

In moving toward her closing comments, Gredler presents examples of educational games and experiential simulations (including social-process, diagnostic, and data management simulations) within a research context. She also elaborates on her thoughts about symbolic simulations, otherwise referred to as microworlds. While Gredler concludes that there is no clear evidence to support the use of simulations, she does indicate that there is reason to be hopeful. For example, she points to research that suggests that there is no difference between the computer-based activities and the control group. However, Gredler warns that without prior instruction, the failure rates associated with these activities are high. She also believes that not only is explicit teaching necessary before engaging students in simulations, but so too is the examination of assumptions associated with the design of these activities.

Griffiths, M. (2002). The educational benefits of videogames. Education and Health, 20(3), 47-51. Retrieved May 8, 2007, from the EBSCO Professional Development Collection database.
Griffiths uses this piece to concentrate on the positive aspects of video games, as opposed to the negative characteristics commonly presented in the popular press. He begins by outlining the advantages and disadvantages associated with videogame research. Based on his list, the advantages clearly outweigh the disadvantages. Griffiths then proceeds to describe work that has been done on videogames and children. The first example focuses on a study by Demarest (2000) that involved an autistic child, particularly the therapeutic benefits that were revealed as a result of that research. According to Griffiths, the benefits that Demarest underscores include language skills, basic math skills, basic reading skills, and social skills. One thing that Griffiths finds remarkable about this research is the importance of immediate feedback.

Videogames have been used in other situations, as well, and it is at this point that Griffiths discusses three of those contexts: brain-wave biofeedback; videogames and health care; and rehabilitation. One such example is the use of brain-wave biofeedback to teach children with attention deficit disorder how to "control normally involuntary body functions…by providing real-time monitoring of those responses" (p. 49). In terms of videogames in health care, studies have shown improvements in children and adolescent players with diabetes. Videogames have also been beneficial for rehabilitation, as well as for HIV/AIDS prevention training.

Griffiths concludes with a list (adapted from Funk) that is intended to help individuals select appropriate videogames for children. The list outlines features, such as type of game, nature of involvement, duration, and setting. Even though the tone of this article is a positive one, Griffiths does mention a few of the risks associated with videogames. For example, he notes that the wrong kind of videogames, such as the 'shoot 'em up games', can have a harmful effect on children. However, Griffiths also asserts that these negative consequences are often linked to those who excessively use videogames.

Halverson, R., Shaffer, D., Squire, K., & Steinkuehler, C. (2006). Theorizing games in/and education. Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Learning Sciences ICLS '06. Retrieved May 8, 2007, from the ACM Digital Library database.
This article is basically a summary of a symposium presentation that examined the work of the four authors. In Steinkuehler's section, she refers to games as either being little-g (individual's play) or big-G games (the emergent game culture). She briefly mentions the metaphor of the computer as the mind, but insists that this model is lacking. Instead, Steinkuehler declares that we "must rethink cognition as a distributed and situated event" and "unpack the biodirectional influence of self and society" (p. 1048).

Next, Squire examines the use of the game, Civilization III (now IV), in an after-school club with unmotivated and underachieving students. His goal is to eventually develop an outline for a program like this that would include the use of videogames. Halverson's focus is also on a particular game - the Instructional Leadership Game (ILG). However, in contrast to games designed for children and teens, this one is designed for school leaders. The purpose of ILG is not only to help "novice school learners learn new practices" but to also provide a "sandbox for experienced leaders to customize the game to their schools and engage in what-if experimentation" (p. 1050). And finally, Shaffer wraps things up by discussing two epistemic games - Digital Zoo and MyCity.

Hayes, E. (2006). Situated learning in virtual worlds: The learning ecology of Second Life. Proceedings of the Adult Education Research Conference 2006. Retrieved May 7, 2007, from http://www.adulterc.org/Proceedings/2006/Proceedings/Hayes.pdf
The focus of this article is on what Hayes refers to as the "learning ecology" of the virtual world known as Second Life. Before launching into the theoretical perspectives guiding her work, Hayes provides information about the adoption of social virtual worlds, and briefly outlines the history of SL, specifically. Unlike many of the articles discussing videogames and virtual worlds, the example presented in this article concentrates on the activities of adults rather than children.

Hayes adopted an ethnographic approach for data collection and analysis that was rooted in situated theories of learning. Her role throughout this process was as participant-observer, which involved becoming a landowner and building objects. Hayes notes that one of the key attributes of SL is its focus on user-created content. She also outlines two key dimensions for learning, which include learning technical skills, such as those associated with design, and learning how to become a member of the SL economy.

It is at this point that Hayes devotes much of her energy on the economic aspects that contribute to learning in this virtual world. She discusses building blocks, or "prims," scripting tools, "sandboxes," and property ownership. Because users who own land have more opportunities for creative endeavors, Hayes implies that there is a divide among those participating in SL (i.e., land owners versus non-land owners). Due to the growth of the SL economy, though, Hayes predicts that a shift away from prim designs to a more consumer-based economy where people buy rather than build things is likely to occur.

Part of the current SL economy involves the appearance of the avatars. Hayes observed that there was competition among the participants to have the most creative design. She suggests that these designs became a type of cultural capital. As was the case with property ownership, though, the importance placed on the avatar design also produced a divide among the participants. Hayes concludes that while creation and ownership are commonly viewed as positive aspects of the learning process, she identifies potential challenges for educators. For instance, as the teaching and learning opportunities conducted in SL expand, educators will have to address issues, such as the proliferation of sexually explicit content.

Herz, J. C. (2001). Gaming the system: What higher education can learn from multiplayer online worlds. Educause, 169-191. Retrieved May 7, 2007, from http://www.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ffpiu019.pdf
Herz adopts an approach that allows her to envision what the world of higher education learning would look like if a gaming model were implemented. To construct this vision, Herz outlines the history of computer games, beginning in the early 1960s. One thing she stresses is that the learning that took place during the creation of those games was done in a collaborative, social environment. Herz also contends that individuals who play computer games actively engage with the gaming software and with other players, which fosters learning. Even though there are recognized learning features associated with games, Herz believes that their integration into the world of higher education has been ignored.

The next section of the article examines participatory design and constructive learning. Herz implies that game development has evolved to the point where programming skills are no longer necessary. It is here that Herz once again notes the importance of collaboration, and she adds that receiving feedback is one of the key ingredients to player engagement. Herz also believes that in an online course, students must actively participate in the construction of their learning. Further, she argues that the social ecology of these environments, as well as peer acknowledgement, can also enhance learning.

Herz concludes this piece by imagining what education would look like in a multiplayer world. She attempts to move beyond the binary framework where requirements are either met or not met to examine successful game characteristics - persistence and character development. To Herz, persistence is what gives the "game depth and is psychologically magnetic" (p. 185). In terms of character development, especially in role-playing games, characters not only earn points by overcoming challenges, but as Herz points out, they also gain a reputation among the other players. In using the structure of these games as a model, educators may create a system that would enhance learning and more accurately represent a student's experience in higher education.

Jones, J. G., Morales, C., & Knezek, G. (2004). 3D graphical multi-user online learning environments for internet-based distributed learning: First year results. Paper presented at the National Educational Computing Conference, New Orleans, LA. Retrieved May 14, 2007, from
http://www.iste.org/Content/NavigationMenu/Research/NECC_Research_Paper_Archives/NECC_2004/Jones_Greg-NECC04.pdf
This article concentrates on the results of a study that involved a "computers in the classroom" course taught at the University of North Texas. According to the authors, there were two groups: a control group that meet weekly face-to-face, and a treatment group conducted via a blended course design using what Jones and his group refer to as a "3D online MOO." The 107 students in the control group were based at the Denton campus, whereas the treatment group included 14 students from the Dallas campus. Jones and his colleagues point out that there were several technological problems associated with the treatment group, with some issues taking weeks to resolve.

Several measures were used to collect data, and pre- and post-tests were administered to both groups. It is worth noting that there were cases where matching tests were not available, and the authors assert that this is an issue that they will resolve in future studies. After analyzing the data, the authors found no significant differences between the control and treatment groups. The authors admit that the selection of the participants may have influenced these results in that the students in the treatment group were older and had less experience with technology. One thing Jones and his group did find particularly surprising was what they refer to as "spontaneous exploration." When the virtual space was presented to the group for the first time, the authors noticed that the students would disperse into the vast regions of the world, and it was often difficult to bring them back to the training session site. In their closing remarks, the authors acknowledge the need for more research in this area.

Jones, J. G., Morales, C., & Knezek, G. A. (2005). 3-dimensional online learning environments: Examining attitudes toward information technology between students in internet-based 3-dimensional and face-to-face classroom instruction. Educational Media International, 42(3), 219-236. Retrieved May 7, 2007, from the EBSCO Academic Search Premier database.
In this piece, the authors revisit research they presented in their 2004 article on 3D graphical MOOs. However, this one includes a more expanded discussion of selected concepts and ideas. One thing Jones and his colleagues state repeatedly throughout this piece is that 3D online learning environments provide learning opportunities to those with dial-up, as well as high speed Internet access. Like many other articles, this one also points out that immersion, interaction, and feedback are three components that impact the 3D learning experience.

In the 2004 article, these authors mentioned the connection between text-based MOOs and 3D learning environments. They re-examine that concept in this article, only this time they provide more details. One new claim that Jones and his group make is in regards to the names associated with these environments. For example, the authors state that in the realm of computer games, the names MMOG (massively multiplayer online game), MMOPW (massively multiplayer online persistent world), and MMORPG (massively multiplayer online role-playing game) are used. However, they note that in education, terms like 3D MOOs (multiuser object oriented), MUVEs (multiuser virtual environments), or 3D online learning environments are more common. It is worth mentioning that this distinction is not made in any of the other articles included in this bibliography. Additional points of discussion include multimodal interactions, and the ability of the 3D online learning environment to eliminate physical and social barriers.

As was mentioned earlier, the research activities and the results addressed in the 2004 piece are repeated in this article. Once again, pre- and post-tests were administered to the control and treatment groups, but due to matching issues, only 55.8% of the sample could be used in the analysis (p. 228). In any case, the outcomes for the control group and the treatment group were similar, especially with regards to computer comfort and computer interest. The authors offer two explanations for these outcomes: first, the resources available to students at each campus were different; and second, technical difficulties were experienced by the treatment group.

Kalay, Y. E. (2004). Virtual learning environments [Special issue]. Journal of Information Technology in Construction, 9, 195-207. Retrieved May 8, 2007, from http://www.itcon.org/data/works/att/2004_13.content.04009.pdf
Kalay believes that the document metaphor used to describe cyberspace is inadequate and stresses that a different perspective is needed. In her discussion, she explains that the document metaphor "sees information as separate from the people who use it and from the environment in which is it used" (p. 195). She views an architecture metaphor as more appropriate because in that framework, place is a "combination of context, activities, and action…place-making, rather than page-making" (p. 196). At the end of this section, Kalay outlines three types of virtual places for learning that are currently under development. They include a large-group virtual environment, a small-group virtual environment, and a rich-context learning environment designed for an anthropology course.

As the previous paragraph implies, the theory behind the claims made in this article stem from architecture and the "art of making places" (p. 197). From this point, the characteristics of place are briefly noted. According to Kalay, a place is a space that is in a "socially shareable setting" (p. 197) - one that is unique and connected to other places. She also believes that places have a history and should be "created, through practice and appropriation" (p. 198).

Kalay discusses these places within the context of environments, and suggests that with the exception of videogames very few cyberspaces have created a sense of place. Yet, even in the case of videogames, the predictability of the game contradicts the "sense of place" concept. According to Kalay, other environments, such as Second Life and the Virtual Museum of Modern Art, are also deficient, either in terms of purpose or in the lack of support for engagement. However, Kalay believes that learning environments are different. She asserts that learning "operates more on the level of communication than on the level of inhabitation and presence"; it is communication that as Kalay points out, creates a situation where "the observer can interact with the information" but "is not part of it" (p. 199).

In an attempt to further the discussion, Kalay addresses the issue of presence. She notes that researchers have found that presence is a participatory social construct that is exclusionary. Kalay claims that presence fosters authenticity and allows for adaptability. In her mind, well-designed places are those that "foster a sense of ownership and a sense of control, and at the same time a shared responsibility" (p. 202).

Part of Kalay's discussion includes concepts presented in numerous articles that speak to the use of technology in an educational setting. Terms such as feedback and immersion are incorporated into the dialogue. She also draws from Bitner's (1992) typology of service environments to give context to the transformation of a traditional physical university into a one that is "devoid of 'place'" (p. 204). Not only does this shift change the services, but Kalay argues that it also "radically changes the rich social and cultural attributes of higher education, which according to many experts play an important role in the learning process" (p. 205). Thus, Kalay proposes an option that combines the best of both the physical and the remote institution; these are ones that have the best of the traditional environment but with more. In closing, Kalay declares that in order to be effective learning environments, institutions in cyberspace have to do more than replicate physical spaces.

Kemp, J., & Livingstone, D. (2006). Putting a Second Life 'metaverse' skin on learning management systems. In Livingstone, D. (Ed.), Second Life Community Convention, San Francisco, 20th August. University of Paisley. Retrieved May 7, 2007, from http://www.sloodle.com/whitepaper.pdf
In this article, the authors compare the advantages and disadvantages of learning management systems (LMS) and Second Life to determine which one would work better in an educational setting. Kemp and Livingstone also explore the notion of developing a system that combines the two. The authors begin by presenting an overview of LMS, which are commonly used as a document repository, and SL, which they insist is a "persistent 3D 'metaverse'" (p. 13) that allows the user to create the content (i.e., there is no backstory). In the first comparison round, the authors evaluate the learning experiences afforded via LMS and SL. Due to its ability to foster collaborations and create situations that allow students to "experience phenomena of interest" (p. 14), the authors found that SL clearly had the advantage over LMS.

In the second comparison round, which examined the document repository capabilities of both, the results were reversed. The authors point out that some of the difficulties associated with SL surfaced while doing simple tasks, such as formatting documents and uploading PowerPoint presentation slides. Other difficulties educators may face when working within the SL environment are also discussed. First, the authors mention the hardware demands and technical requirements of SL. They also state that access for visually impaired students is problematic in that SL does not work with any screen-readers at this time. And finally, Kemp and Livingstone put forth a warning about disruptive players, or "griefers" who interrupt instruction sessions.

The final section of the article is devoted to an investigation into the possibility of combining LMS and SL. Based on the results of their survey, 86% of the respondents thought that integrating the two would be extremely useful (p. 15). One system that the authors propose is the Open Source Moodle LMS with SL, otherwise known as Sloodle. In order to imagine the formation of this integrated system, the authors examine the framework of a three-tiered architecture that includes the data layer, the logic layer, and the presentation layer. After briefly describing all three, Kemp and Livingstone conclude that the presentation layer is most likely to produce innovative results. Overall, the authors discovered that there is strong interest in the integration of LMS and SL, but they recognize that only time will tell what transformations will take place.

Livingstone, D., & Kemp, J. (2006). Massively multi-learner: Recent advances in 3D social environments. Computing and Information Systems Journal, 10(2). Retrieved July 11, 2007, from http://www.cis.paisley.ac.uk/research/journal/v10n2/LinvingstoneKemp.doc
This short, easy-to-read article provides an overview of Second Life and the educational possibilities associated with this world. One point Livingstone and Kemp make is that SL differs from MOOs in that the SL players create the story. They claim that this feature in particular has attracted the attention of many educators.

Currently, virtual learning environments (VLEs), such as Blackboard and the open source Moodle product, are found in many educational settings; yet, the authors assert that these tools are not being used to their fullest. In fact, they state that most are employed simply as document repositories. Livingstone and Kemp also suggest that many students would not think of VLEs as virtual environments. Because of the difference between the educational community and entertainment technologies, the authors propose a Games Based Learning (GBL) approach to fill the gap.

The authors examine the Second Life platform as a possible GBL structure. To support this position, Livingstone and Kemp point out that a number of educational initiatives are currently taking place in SL, such as New York Law School's Democracy Island and conferences conducted by Harvard Law School. Because the users are the ones who create the content found in SL, the development of certain courses may require scripting language skills, which some course developers may not possess. However, SL does include the "Linden Scripting Language" to assist educators in this endeavor.

Currently, though, the authors point out that much of the work being done in SL is not an improvement over what traditional bricks and mortar campuses could accomplish. Regardless, the authors recognize that this is similar to artists who first experimented with cinematography; they too used the new technology to replicate exiting work. While Livingstone and Kemp realize that many educational opportunities are available via virtual worlds, they are also aware that more integration with current technologies is needed in order to maximize the potential of 3D platforms, such as Second Life.

Lombardi, J., & McCahill, M. P. (2004). Enabling social dimensions of learning through a persistent, unified, massively multi-user, and self-organizing virtual environment. Proceedings for the Second International Conference on Creating, Connecting and Collaborating through Computing (C5'04). Retrieved October 3, 2007, from the IEEE Digital Library database.
The authors begin by observing that many of the e-learning systems of the past have been "transactional environments" that are aligned with the traditional behavioralist models of education. While these models reinforce self-contained individual learning, current e-learning systems incorporate constructivist ideas, such as interaction, into the design. Interactions, particularly informal ones that occur outside the classroom, are of particular interest to Lombari and McCahill.

In virtual learning environments, students can interact and access resources within the confines of a common space. These flexible and collaborative models provide educators with the opportunity to exploit the 3-D learning potential and make users visible. The authors conclude that interactivity is the key and is "synonymous with vital, self-organizing communities of practice."

Lonsdale, P., & Vavoula, G. (n.d.). Research into current technology that could be applied to the design of learning spaces. Retrieved May 8, 2007, from http://www.ldu.bham.ac.uk/espaces/eSpaces%20report%20final%20summary%20-%20text.pdf
In terms of virtual environments, specifically, this article does not provide much information. The most relevant portion of this article is the section on new and emergent technologies, which describes various electronic tools that have the potential to enhance learning spaces. Examples of these tools include traditional technologies, virtual and immersive technologies, mobile learning technologies, ambient learning technologies, and infrastructure and communication technologies. While a concise look at those technologies is provided, the ones of most interest to the authors are those in the virtual and immersive environments category. Lonsdale and Vavoula discuss the use of these environments in educational settings, and outline the benefits of virtual training systems, augmented reality systems, and immersive environments (i.e., MUVEs). Benefits that are mentioned within the context of this discussion include greater engagement, the ability to participate in real-life situations, and equal opportunities for participation, even for students with physical disabilities. Other features of this article include a brief look at pedagogic roles, case studies, and ad hoc learning spaces.

Matei, S. A., Miller, C., Arns, L., Rauh, N., Hartman, C., & Bruno, R. (2007). Visible past: Learning and discovering in real and virtual space and time. First Monday, 12(5). Retrieved May 8, 2007, from http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue12_5/matei/
After a discussion about virtual worlds, such as Second Life, the authors note that these worlds are lacking in that they cannot seamlessly support resources and materials from outside their spaces. But, Matei and his colleagues have a solution, which their Visible Past project team refers to as "The Exploratorium" - a "cross-platform, scalable environment for social, geographical, and historical education or research." The authors quickly point out that this environment has location-aware capabilities (i.e., the information system can locate the user in specific geographical spaces or situations to provide information and/or services) and is "skinnable" or "skin-like."

The authors describe three scenarios that serve to illuminate the capabilities of The Exploratorium. The first is a teaching situation where the students walk through the Forum in Rome to learn what life was like during the time of Caesar. Next, the scenario is one that explains how an archaeologist studying the Coliseum would use this tool. And finally, the ways to showcase ancient art or archaeological museum exhibits via The Exploratorium is described.

According to Matei and his group, The Exploratorium makes CAVE®-like technologies available to a larger audience, such as students and members of the public. The Exploratorium is also scalable, and the authors contend that it can incorporate ambiental and haptic characteristics, which they define as "the manner in which information is delivered via general visual cues (ambiential) or via sensory, especially tactile, channels." Ultimately, the goal of the authors is to create a system that places the emphasis on experiential learning and "whole person experiences" that students and researchers alike can use.

The authors then propose a research project involving The Exploratorium. Three areas they hope to explore include: the issue of satisficing and what that would look like in a design; the physical and conceptual affordances of these displays and methods; and the design and conceptual parameters of this type of experience. In closing, the authors believe that their contribution to this area of research is the introduction of a "novel information structure designed to handle and exploit incomplete data." More importantly, they view their work as an attempt to "close the gap between past and present as well as between abstract knowledge and concrete, lived experiences."

McCardle, G., Monahan, T., & Betolotto, M. (2006). 3D collaborative virtual environments for e-learning and m-learning. Proceedings of the Fifth IASTED International Conference Web-based Education. January 23-26, 2006, Puerto Vallarta, Mexico. Retrieved May 7, 2007, from the ACM Digital Library database.
This article serves as an introduction to Collaborative Learning Environments (CLEs), especially Collaborative Learning Environments with Virtual Reality (CLEV-R). The authors first examine the literature on virtual environments, and discuss examples such as INVITE (Intelligent Distributed Virtual Training Environments) and EVE (Educational Virtual Environments). Commercial online 3D products, such as Active Worlds are also mentioned. The project that is of primary interest to the authors, though, is CLEV-R, and they mention that it has features that are similar to yet different from the other CLEs presented in the literature. As they point out, the one difference between CLEs, like Active Worlds, and CLEV-R is that the latter offers more interactive features for teachers and students. The authors assert that these features promote social learning and foster friendships. Another area the authors are investigating is a mobile learning project, which they refer to as mCLEV-R.

The next sections of this piece describe the CLEV-R and mCLEV-R applications. One thing that is worth mentioning is that the CLEV-R avatars are able to gesture, which is a feature that is not available in all CLE products (see Dickey, 2003, this bibliography). In terms of mobile learning capabilities, the authors contend that there are limitations to the current generation of products. For example, the authors indicate that there is no guarantee as to the consistency between the mobile device and the desktop.

In an attempt to give the reader a clearer picture of the CLEV-R system, the authors describe three different sample sessions - an online lecture, a group meeting, and a socializing scenario. One beneficial feature of the system that stands out in these descriptions is the ability of the instructor to use a voice broadcast feature for lectures. While CLEV-R shows promise, the authors admit that an evaluation of the system is needed, as is an examination of relevant pedagogy.

McFarlane, A. (2005). Learning from games and simulations: The games people play. Interact, 31, 3. Retrieved May 7, 2007, from
http://www.ltss.bris.ac.uk/interact/31/INTERACT_31.pdf
This brief article begins by dismissing commonly held beliefs about video games. McFarlane points to statistics from the Entertainment Software Association that indicate that on average, players are over 30 (19% are over the age of 50), and 43% are female (p. 3). She also asserts that video gaming is not a solitary activity that promotes anti-social behavior, especially when referring to those who play multiplayer games. McFarlane touches on a few of the characteristics that make good games, and they include "rich and complex worlds," high levels of engagement, and "experiences that teach players how to master the game" (p. 3). In conclusion, McFarlane acknowledges that educational gaming research is in its infancy, and more studies are needed to better understand how educators can transfer and utilize the characteristics that make video games good.

Melnick, B. (2002). Virtual schools: The changing face of education? The English Journal, 91(5), 85-88. Retrieved May 8, 2007, from the JSTOR database.
The premise of this article focuses on the notion that individuals need to rethink how education is implemented in virtual spaces. Based on his many years of experience as an educator working with online communities, Melnick attempts to address some of the key issues he has encountered during this work. Melnick begins by emphasizing that activities conducted in an online learning environment are different from those conducted in the traditional classroom. More specifically, online learning requires educators to rethink their accepted beliefs about user interaction, content, and design. In order to facilitate this different way of thinking, Melnick lists nine areas where traditional and virtual learning diverge. They include an undefined work day, a concentration on reading and writing, and the development of a curriculum for specific technology.

Melnick continues his call for a new way of thinking by insisting that educators need to move away from the principle of "use of technology" to one of "technology of use" (p. 87). He believes that to do this, those who have a vested interest in the new system (i.e., teachers) should be the focus. Additionally, Melnick advocates the creation of a technology "tool chest" rather than a single technological device. Because they would have technological options, teachers could select the one that is most relevant for the particular task from the tool chest rather than attempting to fit the task into the technology.

When considering students, Melnick recognizes that they may encounter difficulties in online learning environments. In order to remedy issues such as isolation and frustration, Melnick suggests the formation of online communities. According to Melnick, these communities would allow the development of a "collective knowledge base, where students learn from the ideas of each other as well as from the ideas of the teacher and other visiting experts" (p. 88). He also supports the creation of personal spaces so students may reflect on their thoughts before making them public. Melnick concludes that the primary challenge is to create online spaces that give students a voice and shapes them into independent learners.

Mitchell, A., & Savill-Smith, C. (2004). The use of computer and video games for learning: A review of the literature. Learning and Skills Development Agency. Retrieved May 8, 2007, from http://www.lsda.org.uk/files/PDF/1529.pdf
This extensive review of the literature summarizes the themes that impact computer and video game use for learning. The authors present not only the advantages of using games in educational settings, but also the disadvantages that surfaced throughout the course of their work. In the early sections of this 84-page document, Mitchell and Savill-Smith outline the research questions that served to guide their review, as well as a set of definitions for play, games, computer games, and video games. Following this overview, the remaining portions of the document are divided into eight sections, which investigate topics such as the impact of games on young people, the use of computer games for learning, and recommendations for the design of educational games. Gender differences are incorporated into the discussion, as well.

While the authors conclude that more research is needed in many areas investigating games and their use in education, they do point to some interesting findings. One is related to the work conducted by the Body Awareness Resource Network (BARN). For example, Mitchell and Savill-Smith make the following observation about gaming and the BARN results: "Gender differences were highest at ninth grade level (adolescents aged approximately 14, as defined by the NCES 2002)" (p. 32). Another interesting piece of information the authors highlight is the notion that feedback does not always improve performance. They continue by noting that the "Hall of Fame" feature (p. 33) is at times equally inhibiting.

Other points of interest were included in this review, as well. One comment the authors make regarding the presentation of background information to the learner was informative. They note that in cases where the learner had to look up the information when needed, as opposed to being given system-initiated clues, the learner's curiosity increased. This review also revealed that almost all students - male and female - wanted to interact with a game that included combat and/or shooting. And finally, another aspect that has not been touched upon in many articles about video games in education, which is highlighted in this document, is the time commitment. The authors point to the work of Stoll (1999) who is quoted as saying that "time spent in front of a screen could instead be spent, for example in a social or sport activity" (p. 59).

One issue that is mentioned repeatedly throughout this piece is the possibility of a novelty effect. Many of the articles Mitchell and Savill-Smith reviewed cited the novelty effect as an explanation for the learning improvements. This was especially true in cases that involved different types of video games or simulations. Hence, the authors imply that this finding alone highlights the need for further research in the area of educational gaming.

Nardi, B. A., Ly, S., & Harris, J. (2007). Learning conversations in World of Warcraft. Proceedings of the 40th Hawaii International Conference on Systems Sciences. Retrieved October 3, 2007, from http://darrouzet-nardi.net/bonnie/pdf/Nardi-HICSS.pdf
The research for this study was guided by the work of Vygotsky and his concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) to examine peer learning in the massively multiplayer online game, World of Warcraft (WoW). Nardi and her colleagues point out that chat conversations are the main way learning takes place in this role-playing game. While these learning conversations are informal, the authors believe that these interactions foster connections, enable players to discover new knowledge, and encourage deeper understanding.

In WoW, players work collaboratively to solve problems, and as part of the learning culture in this environment, players answer questions quickly and courteously. As Vygotsky predicted, Nardi and her group found that learners in WoW "accomplished more with the aid of experienced peers than they could on their own" (p. 8). Further, because the learning conversations take place in a playful environment, "players are relaxed but engaged" (p. 9).

Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game-based learning. New York: McGraw Hill.
While numerous educators, particularly those in colleges and universities, are moving their courses to online environments, Prensky notes that many fail to add one essential ingredient - fun. The purpose of Prensky's book is to make a case for the adoption of an enjoyable learning experience conducted via a computer. He refers to this educational model as Digital Game-based Learning, which he believes is currently in Geoffrey Moore's (1995) early adopter stage. While Prensky does address the K-12 and other similar educational environments, the target audiences for this book are the business and government sectors, including the military. Thus, the book lends itself to being more of a practical, how-to guide than an academic assessment of this type of learning.

Prensky has divided the book into four sections: 1) Introduction and background; 2) How games teach and why they work; 3) What leading organizations are doing; and 4) Implementation. He begins by explaining his position on game-based learning and touting his belief that the mainstream will adopt this practice in the future. It is important to mention that Prensky is not making a case for the configuration of an environment where game-based learning replaces traditional education; on the contrary, he argues for the integration of his approach with other effective learning methods. Moreover, Prensky insists that the answer for K-12 educators may lie in the home use of educational games, which would in a sense add an extra school day to the week.

One point Prensky makes throughout the book is that children do not like school because they think it is boring. Prensky believes that today's learners are different and less linear thinkers due to their exposure to video games; in fact, he states that these young people have "very different minds" and the "theories we have formulated in the past about how people think and learn may no longer apply" (p. 17). In general, Prensky insists that the minds of those under 40 years of age - or the "digital natives" - have been "altered" or "rewired"; hence, the need for a new education model, one that places motivation first, followed by reflection. This new model should also take into account individualization, creation, and content.

While Prensky recognizes that many teachers and trainers are integrating these characteristics into their current practice, he emphasizes that it is the prioritization associated with his model that is different. Prensky continues this discussion by stressing the importance of reflection and critical thinking; although, he admits that to incorporate these features and keep the game fun can present challenges. To further his argument for the inclusion of fun in the learning process, Prensky draws from the field of neuroscience to illustrate the ways in which laughing can increase productivity and performance. He concludes by outlining the characteristics of a game that would elicit such a response by the players. This list also includes enjoyable educational experiences.

More concrete examples of game-based learning initiatives are described in Part Three of the book. Prensky discusses 41 case studies, which include programs offered through companies, such as Ameritrade, Burger King, and PepsiCo. He separates the cases into categories to not only concentrate on the industry that is using this type of learning, but to also point to the diverse array of internal and external training opportunities that have been effectively implemented. A detailed section that examines the use of game-based learning by the United States military is presented, as well. While Prensky does refer to some of the related research as a way to illustrate the effectiveness of this type of learning, he indicates that the military (and not academia) is the one entity that is heavily involved in evaluating the learning that takes place in these environments. Prensky also makes a reference to Fletcher's "Rule of Thirds," which states that the use of "technology-based instruction reduces costs by about one-third and either reduces instruction time by about one-third or increases effectiveness of instruction by about one-third" (p. 382).

Overall, Prensky makes a case for the integration of game-based learning into various learning situations and alludes to its effectiveness. Even though the digital natives may find it easier to consider games as a learning space, Prensky does not exclude "digital immigrants" from the equation. Instead he advises that those who do not feel comfortable interacting in a gaming environment should have alternative options. Another suggestion Prensky makes is allowing people to switch back and forth between the game and the more traditional learning option. He believes that even digital immigrants may find that they actually enjoy learning in this new digital environment once they give it a chance.

Prensky, M. (2003). Digital game-based learning. ACM Computers in Entertainment, 1(1), 1-4. Retrieved May 8, 2007, from the ACM Digital Library database.
In this very brief article, Prensky makes a case for the use of video and computer games in an educational setting. The first issue he discusses is motivation. To Prensky, motivation is the key to learning, but unfortunately, he hears the words "boring" and "dry" often used when children talk about school. Prensky continues by emphasizing that today's learners, or what he refers to as "digital natives," are different from those in previous generations; he even contends that the use of technology and the acquisition of skills that accompany that activity have modified the brains of the digital learners. These digital natives, as Prensky points out, do not speak their teachers' language, and the teachers do not speak their students' language. Therefore, Prensky argues that in the end, games may be the best teachers because they combine the "most compelling and interactive design elements of the best video and computer games with specific curricular content" (p. 4). While the opinions of those who see video games as "frivolous" or "harmful" are mentioned, they are done so in passing. This article makes it clear that Prensky's slant is completely on the side that is advocating for the use of video and computer games in education.

Pursel, B. K., & Bailey, K. D. (2004). Establishing virtual learning worlds: The impact of virtual worlds and online gaming on education and training. Retrieved May 8, 2007, from http://www.personal.psu.edu/staff/b/k/bkp10/vlw_working.pdf
The authors believe that elearning is in trouble and that an innovative solution is needed to save it. Their answer: the creation of virtual learning worlds based on a games approach. According to their plan, these worlds would combine learning management systems (LMS) and virtual worlds. While Pursel and Bailey admit that games will not solve all of the problem